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60 years of Chinese clothing revolution: from cotton to "really good" to rayon
Back in 1949, when the People's Republic of China was established, the average person had access to just 7 feet of cloth per year. That's not enough to make an adult's outfit or even a single blanket. The average spending on clothing for households across the nation was a mere 6.5 yuan. "Living in rags" was a fitting description of the situation at that time. By 2007, the national chemical fiber production had skyrocketed to 24.57 million tons, representing an 8,533% increase from the 284,600 tons produced in 1978, accounting for over a third of global output and ranking first in the world. The transition from cotton to chemical fibers marked a revolution in the way Chinese people dressed. "The grace of chemical fiber is something we take for granted," one might say. Without chemical fibers, cotton alone would have struggled to meet the clothing demands of hundreds of millions of people 60 years ago. Classic images from those times often depict people dressed in the styles of the Republic of China era, with tailored suits and Western fabrics reserved for the elite. Regardless of political affiliation or geographic location, everyone felt the profound changes sweeping through Chinese society.
Du Chau, President of the China National Textile and Apparel Industry Association, recalls that back in 1949, there was only 7 feet of cloth per person, making it impossible to clothe an adult adequately. Nationwide, the average household spending on clothing was a paltry 6.5 yuan. The phrase "living in rags" perfectly encapsulates the reality of that era. Cotton wasn't just scarce; it was also a critical bargaining chip for maintaining market stability. Just like today's currency exchange rates, stock indices, and oil prices, the fluctuations in the "two whites and one black" (grain, gauze, and coal) were significant market indicators, influencing the economy and becoming a major concern for the new regime. This was evident even in the earliest days of the State Council's establishment. Ji Guo-biao, former vice-minister of the Ministry of Textile Industry, remembers how Chang'an Avenue in Beijing housed one of the first ten ministries of the State Council from east to west, including the Ministry of Foreign Trade, the Ministry of Coal Industry, the Ministry of Textile Industry, and the Ministry of Public Security. Back then, the streets were lined with cloth shops and tailor shops. Some stores sold high-grade fabrics like silk, but the dust collected on the tops showed little interest from customers. People bought coarse cloth and took it to tailor shops to get custom-made outfits. Purchasing ready-made clothes from state-owned department stores was a luxury many envied. In rural areas, shopping was confined to local supply and marketing cooperatives. The arrival of scarce goods meant long lines. During times of material shortages, buying cloth required cloth coupons. Families saved their coupons for special occasions like the Lunar New Year, using them to make new clothes or quilts. For children, receiving new clothes and money during the New Year was a big highlight. People followed the "new every three years, old for three, patched for three" philosophy, where older siblings passed down their clothes to younger ones. Clothes were often patched and faded, especially for the youngest children.
In the absence of chemical fibers, cotton struggled to meet the clothing needs of hundreds of millions of people alone. By the 1960s, particularly during the difficult three-year period, cotton production plummeted, leaving the textile industry short of supply. To save resources, clothing was made from sturdy fabrics that lasted longer, with blue, gray, and black becoming dominant colors. Domestic clothing was characterized by uniform designs and a militaristic, revolutionary aesthetic, reflecting the plainness that people consciously or subconsciously embraced.
Ji Guotao recalls wearing his first "good" (polyester) Shirt in 1963, marking the beginning of China's chemical fiber industry. In July 1960, the first large-scale viscose fiber plant in China – Baoding Chemical Fiber Joint Factory (now Baoding Swan Chemical Fiber Group Co., Ltd.) – began production with a capacity of 5,000 tons of viscose filament yarn. Although this seems modest now, in the early 1960s, chemical fiber clothing became a rare commodity on the market. Prior to this, items like "glass stockings" (nylon stockings), "rayon headdresses," and "nylon umbrellas" were considered precious. Journalists remember their childhood fascination with adults flaunting their prized "elite" shirts and "triple" trousers, discussing novelties unique to that era. Many schoolchildren dreamed of owning a set of blue Pants and a white shirt, the standard uniform, with the added prestige of "good" fabric in the shirt. Chemical fiber quickly gained near-paranoid popularity due to its crispness, dirt resistance, affordability, and availability without cloth coupons.
By the 1970s, the state decided to expand chemical fiber production, building four major chemical fiber bases: Shanghai Jinshan, Liaoyang Chemical Fiber, Tianjin Chemical Fiber, and Sichuan Vinylon Plant. By the late 1970s, a comprehensive textile industry system was established, meeting the basic clothing needs of the general public. Du Yuzhou notes that several textile bases were also established, including Beijing, Zhengzhou, Henan, Shaanxi Xianyang, and the famous "Blue Sky" trio (Shanghai, Qingdao, Tianjin). At that time, most textile machinery was domestically produced. According to authoritative sources from the China Textile Industry Association, by 2007, the national chemical fiber production reached 24.57 million tons, a 8,533% increase from the 284,600 tons in 1978, accounting for more than a third of global output and ranking first worldwide. In the early 1980s, when Baoding Plant was established, its output was only 10,000 tons, representing just 0.3% of global output. Today, chemical fiber accounts for 65% of China’s total textile raw material consumption. As China’s largest textile and apparel exporter, in 2007, $175.6 billion worth of textile and apparel exports were generated, with more than a third of the fabric and clothing coming from chemical fiber.
Life is full of chemical fiber, and its outstanding performance is increasingly sought after. Urban residents' clothing consumption has shifted from "wearing what you have" to "buying what you want." We’ve entered an era where "cotton" is celebrated, though chemically treated non-crinkled cotton remains popular. Chemical fibers continue to dominate the market, subtly altering people's tastes. As a senior expert in domestic apparel materials science, Professor Zhou LuYing of the Beijing Institute of Clothing Technology explains clearly: the traditional chemical fiber was once airtight, prone to static electricity, and lacked hygroscopicity. New chemical fibers have transformed these characteristics, offering innovative fabrics like Coolmax, known for its excellent moisture-wicking properties, making clothing more breathable and comfortable than pure cotton. Jiubibu elaborates on various technical methods to create new chemical fibers, such as multi-component blends, complex structures, copolymerization, nanotechnology, ultrafine fibers, and more. Ultrafine fibers, for instance, have been industrialized in China, with each gram-length containing 20,000 kilometers of fiber—equivalent to the distance from Shanghai to New York—offering superior performance unimaginable with natural fibers.
In the fashion world, chemical fibers are also gaining attention. Ms. Hu, a fashion designer in Hong Kong and Shenzhen, emphasizes: "It's unimaginable to exclude chemical fibers from our work today!" She explains that the limitations of natural fibers necessitate the differential functions offered by chemical fibers to fulfill the endless pursuit of fashion. "Chemical fibers are everywhere in our lives," she adds, "and we unknowingly benefit from their contributions."
Chairman Zhu Minru of the China Industrial Textiles Association highlights nonwovens, a branch of the chemical fiber industry. Output of nonwovens in China exceeded 5000 tons in the 1970s and 1980s and now exceeds 172 million tons, making China the world’s largest producer. The nonwovens industry grows at over 20% annually. Nonwovens are diversifying in variety and processing methods, appearing in everything from cosmetic masks to baby diapers, surgical suits, and protective clothing. In large-scale engineering applications and emergency public health situations, nonwovens play crucial roles, such as flood prevention in 1998 and virus containment in 2003 and 2009.
Du Yuzhou defines the textile and apparel industry from a broader perspective: "China's textile and apparel industry is not what it was five years ago, nor 25 years ago, or even 60 years ago." Why? He explains that many still view China's textile industry as primarily producing mid-to-low-grade raw materials for export garment processing. Yet, over the past few decades, the industry has evolved significantly. In 1980, exports were valued at $4.4 billion, rising to $53 billion in 2000 and $175.6 billion in 2007, accounting for 30% of the global market. The trade surplus reached $100.4 billion. Currently, general trade accounts for 72.4% of textile exports, surpassing the national average. China's textile and apparel industry now boasts a complete industrial chain, from spinning to finished products, unlike other Chinese manufacturing sectors focused solely on finished goods processing. Nearly 3/4 of textile processing occurs in China, with processing trade dropping to 24%.
Du Chau notes that the rise in trade frictions stems from the perception of China’s textile quality improving, leading to concerns in developed countries. In 2002, the U.S. Trade Commission concluded that China’s textile and apparel industry could offer any variety and quality at competitive prices, making it a preferred choice for major U.S. companies and retailers. This has led to calls for special safeguard measures.
From 1949 to 2007, per capita fiber consumption rose from 7 feet to over 14 kg, exceeding the global average by 127%. Urban per capita clothing expenditure grew from 67.56 yuan in 1981 to 1042 yuan in 2007, while rural per capita clothing expenditure rose from 14.74 yuan in 1978 to 192.6 yuan in 2007. From 1978 to 2000, clothing expenditures grew annually by 7.45%, higher than the national consumption growth rate of 6.95%.
In 1978, China’s cotton production was 2.04 million tons, reaching 6.7 million tons in 2007. Chemical fiber output rose from 285,000 tons in 1978 to 23.89 million tons in 2007. In 2007, large-scale enterprises’ textile industry output reached 303.369 billion yuan, with total fiber processing reaching 35.3 million tons, a 1,179% increase from 2.76 million tons in 1978. Yarn output was 20.4 million tons, up 737.8% from 2.382 million tons in 1978. Chemical fiber output was 24.57 million tons, an 8,533% increase from 284,600 tons in 1978. Cotton cloth output was 48.577 billion meters, a 340% increase from 110.3 billion meters in 1978. Garment output reached 20.159 billion pieces. The industry used about 6.7 million tons of domestic natural fibers, impacting the livelihood of over 100 million farmers. China’s chemical fiber, yarn, cloth, woolen, silk fabric, garment, and other outputs rank first globally, with fiber processing accounting for about 50% of the world total.
Textile and apparel exports grew from $2.43 billion in 1978 to $175.616 billion in 2007, a 7,217% increase. Textile exports reached $60.043 billion, while apparel exports totaled $115.074 billion. General trade accounted for 72.41% of exports in 2007, compared to 21.23% for processing trade. General trade accounted for 72.75% of textile exports and 72.23% of apparel exports. From 2001 to 2007, China exported $735.4 billion worth of textiles and apparel, 1.64 times the amount exported from 1978 to 2000. Industrial textiles now account for 17% of total fiber processing, growing faster than clothing needs.
Innovation continues in the textile industry, with significant advancements in technology and equipment. The industry has completed the outline of pre-2010 developments, identifying 28 major technological breakthroughs and 10 new sets of technical equipment innovation goals. Significant achievements have been made, with 143 industry awards in 2007, 9 Hong Kong Sangma Foundation Science and Technology Awards, 2 second prizes from the State Science and Technology Awards, and 4 second prizes from science and technology progress awards. Eight types of key equipment have been included in the national major equipment development directory. Breakthroughs have been achieved in the development of 14 new fibers. Textile science and technology, including silk, hemp textiles, fabrics, garments, new technology and environmental pulp, new dyeing and finishing processes, high-tech processing technology, biotechnology, digital technology, nanotechnology, low-light electromechanical technology, photochemical technology, information network technology, laser technology, computer-integrated manufacturing technology, and ERP enterprise resource management technology, are progressing smoothly. Independent innovation in the textile industry has been supported by domestic textile machinery and equipment, improving both technological levels and market shares. The achievement of breakthroughs in textile technology and new product development provides strong guarantees for applying independent innovation technologies, significantly reducing investment costs. Advanced domestic cotton spinning machines now feature domestically produced advanced spindles, with domestic carding and combing complete sets of equipment reaching over 65% market share. Digital printing and netting systems have entered industrialized mass production stages, significantly improving post-printing finishing levels and significantly enhancing the quality of domestic printed and dyed fabrics. Textile exports have grown at an average annual rate of 20%; in 2007, the self-sufficiency rate of garment exports rose to over 70%.